While choosing an op-amp buffer, some sources of negative supply were considered, because the buffer op-amp had to provide true zero voltage on its output. In reality, a typical rail-to-rail output op ...

Using modulated rectangular waves of different time periods, the circuit presented here produces ringing tones similar to those produced by a telephone. The circuit requires four astable ...

We must admit that we’ve been guilty of using a microcontroller to make two LEDs blink alternately in the past. It’s not the worst transgression, but it stems from our discomfort with analog circuits.